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Shamanism is a religious exercise that involves a practitioner (shaman) interacting with what they believe to be a spirit world through altered states of consciousness, such as trance.[1] [2] The goal of this is usually to direct spirits or spiritual energies into the physical world for the purpose of healing, divination, or to assistance man beings in another way.[ane]

Behavior and practices categorized equally "shamanic" have attracted the interest of scholars from a variety of disciplines, including anthropologists, archaeologists, historians, religious studies scholars, philosophers and psychologists. Hundreds of books and academic papers on the subject have been produced, with a peer-reviewed academic journal being devoted to the study of shamanism.

In the 20th century, non-Indigenous Westerners involved in counter-cultural movements, such equally hippies and the New Age created modern magico-religious practices influenced by their ideas of diverse Ethnic religions, creating what has been termed neoshamanism or the neoshamanic movement.[3] Information technology has affected the development of many neopagan practices, too as faced a backlash and accusations of cultural appropriation,[4] exploitation and misrepresentation when outside observers have tried to exercise the ceremonies of, or represent, centuries-onetime cultures to which they do not belong.[5]

Terminology [edit]

Etymology [edit]

The earliest known depiction of a Siberian shaman, by the Dutch Nicolaes Witsen, 17th century. Witsen called him a "priest of the Devil" and drew clawed feet for the supposed demonic qualities.[6]

The Modern English discussion shamanism derives from the Russian word šamán , which itself comes from the word samān from a Tungusic linguistic communication[7] – possibly from the southwestern dialect of the Evenki spoken by the Sym Evenki peoples,[eight] or from the Manchu language.[9] The etymology of the give-and-take is sometimes connected to the Tungus root sā- , meaning "to know".[10] [11] Notwithstanding, Juha Janhunen questions this connection on linguistic grounds: "The possibility cannot be completely rejected, simply neither should information technology exist accepted without reservation since the assumed derivational human relationship is phonologically irregular (notation peculiarly the vowel quantities)."[12]

Mircea Eliade noted that the Sanskrit word śramaṇa, designating a wandering monastic or holy figure, has spread to many Central Asian languages along with Buddhism and could be the ultimate origin of the Tungusic word.[13]

The term was adopted past Russians interacting with the indigenous peoples in Siberia. It is found in the memoirs of the exiled Russian churchman Avvakum.[14] Information technology was brought to Western Europe xx years afterward by the Dutch traveler Nicolaes Witsen, who reported his stay and journeys amid the Tungusic- and Samoyedic-speaking indigenous peoples of Siberia in his book Noord en Oost Tataryen (1692).[15] Adam Brand, a merchant from Lübeck, published in 1698 his account of a Russian embassy to Red china; a translation of his book, published the aforementioned year, introduced the word shaman to English language speakers.[16]

Anthropologist and archaeologist Silvia Tomaskova argued that by the mid-1600s, many Europeans applied the Standard arabic term shaitan (meaning "devil") to the not-Christian practices and behavior of indigenous peoples beyond the Ural Mountains.[17] She suggests that shaman may take entered the various Tungus dialects as a corruption of this term, and then been told to Christian missionaries, explorers, soldiers and colonial administrators with whom the people had increasing contact for centuries.

A female shaman is sometimes chosen a shamanka , which is not an actual Tungus term merely simply shaman plus the Russian suffix -ka (for feminine nouns).[18]

Definitions [edit]

At that place is no single agreed-upon definition for the discussion "shamanism" among anthropologists. Thomas Downson suggests three shared elements of shamanism: practitioners consistently change consciousness, the community regards altering consciousness as an important ritual practice, and the knowledge about the do is controlled.

The English historian Ronald Hutton noted that by the dawn of the 21st century, there were four separate definitions of the term which appeared to be in utilize:

  1. The first of these uses the term to refer to "anybody who contacts a spirit world while in an altered state of consciousness."
  2. The second definition limits the term to refer to those who contact a spirit globe while in an altered state of consciousness at the behest of others.
  3. The third definition attempts to distinguish shamans from other magico-religious specialists who are believed to contact spirits, such as "mediums", "witch doctors", "spiritual healers" or "prophets," by challenge that shamans undertake some particular technique not used by the others. (Problematically, scholars advocating the third view have failed to agree on what the defining technique should be.)
  4. The fourth definition identified past Hutton uses "shamanism" to refer to the indigenous religions of Siberia and neighboring parts of Asia.[20] Co-ordinate to the Golomt Center for Shamanic Studies, a Mongolian organisation of shamans, the Evenk word shaman would more accurately be translated as "priest".[21]

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, a shaman ( SHAH-men, or )[22] is someone who is regarded as having access to, and influence in, the world of benevolent and malevolent spirits, who typically enters into a trance state during a ritual, and practices divination and healing.[one] [22] The word "shaman" probably originates from the Tungusic Evenki linguistic communication of North Asia. According to ethnolinguist Juha Janhunen, "the discussion is attested in all of the Tungusic idioms" such every bit Negidal, Lamut, Udehe/Orochi, Nanai, Ilcha, Orok, Manchu and Ulcha, and "zilch seems to contradict the assumption that the meaning 'shaman' also derives from Proto-Tungusic" and may have roots that extend dorsum in time at least two millennia.[23] The term was introduced to the west after Russian forces conquered the shamanistic Khanate of Kazan in 1552.

The term "shamanism" was first applied by Western anthropologists as outside observers of the ancient religion of the Turks and Mongols, besides as those of the neighbouring Tungusic- and Samoyedic-speaking peoples. Upon observing more religious traditions effectually the globe, some Western anthropologists began to also use the term in a very broad sense. The term was used to depict unrelated magico-religious practices constitute within the ethnic religions of other parts of Asia, Africa, Australasia and even completely unrelated parts of the Americas, equally they believed these practices to be like to ane another.[24] While the term has been incorrectly practical by cultural outsiders to many indigenous spiritual practices, the words "shaman" and "shamanism" do not accurately describe the multifariousness and complexity that is indigenous spirituality. Each Nation and tribe has its ain manner of life, and uses terms in their own languages.[25]

Mircea Eliade writes, "A start definition of this complex phenomenon, and peradventure the least hazardous, will be: shamanism = 'technique of religious ecstasy'."[26] Shamanism encompasses the premise that shamans are intermediaries or messengers between the human earth and the spirit worlds. Shamans are said to treat ailments and illnesses by mending the soul. Alleviating traumas affecting the soul or spirit are believed to restore the physical body of the individual to balance and wholeness. Shamans also claim to enter supernatural realms or dimensions to obtain solutions to bug afflicting the community. Shamans claim to visit other worlds or dimensions to bring guidance to misguided souls and to better illnesses of the man soul caused by foreign elements. Shamans operate primarily within the spiritual world, which, they believe, in turn affects the human earth. The restoration of rest is said to result in the elimination of the ailment.[26]

Criticism of the term [edit]

A tableau presenting figures of various cultures filling in mediator-similar roles, ofttimes beingness termed as "shaman" in the literature. The tableau presents the diverseness of this concept.

The anthropologist Alice Kehoe criticizes the term "shaman" in her book Shamans and Religion: An Anthropological Exploration in Critical Thinking. Part of this criticism involves the notion of cultural cribbing.[4] This includes criticism of New Historic period and modern Western forms of shamanism, which, according to Kehoe, misrepresent or dilute indigenous practices. Kehoe also believes that the term reinforces racist ideas such equally the noble savage.

Kehoe is highly critical of Mircea Eliade's work on shamanism as an invention synthesized from various sources unsupported by more direct research. To Kehoe, citing that ritualistic practices (about notably drumming, trance, chanting, entheogens and hallucinogens, spirit communication and healing) as being definitive of shamanism is poor exercise. Such citations ignore the fact that those practices be outside of what is defined equally shamanism and play similar roles even in not-shamanic cultures (such as the role of chanting in rituals in Abrahamic religions) and that in their expression are unique to each culture that uses them. Such practices cannot be generalized easily, accurately, or usefully into a global religion of shamanism. Considering of this, Kehoe is also highly critical of the hypothesis that shamanism is an ancient, unchanged, and surviving religion from the Paleolithic period.[4]

The term has been criticized[ by whom? ] for its perceived colonial roots, and as a tool to perpetuate perceived contemporary linguistic colonialism. Past Western scholars, the term "shamanism" is used to refer to a variety of different cultures and practices around the world, which can vary dramatically and may not be accurately represented by a single concept. Billy-Ray Belcourt, an writer and award-winning scholar from the Driftpile Cree Nation in Canada, argues that using language with the intention of simplifying civilisation that is various, such as Shamanism, as it is prevalent in communities around the earth and is made up of many complex components, works to muffle the complexities of the social and political violence that indigenous communities accept experienced at the easily of settlers.[27] Belcourt argues that language used to imply "simplicity" in regards to indigenous civilization, is a tool used to belittle indigenous cultures, as it views indigenous communities solely equally a result of a history embroiled in violence, that leaves indigenous communities only capable of simplicity and plainness.

Anthropologist Mihály Hoppál also discusses whether the term "shamanism" is appropriate. He notes that for many readers, "-ism" implies a particular dogma, like Buddhism or Judaism. He recommends using the term "shamanhood"[28] or "shamanship"[29] (a term used in old Russian and German language ethnographic reports at the kickoff of the 20th century) for stressing the multifariousness and the specific features of the discussed cultures. He believes that this places more stress on the local variations[10] and emphasizes that shamanism is not a religion of sacred dogmas, but linked to the everyday life in a practical way.[xxx] Following similar thoughts, he also conjectures a contemporary image shift.[28] Piers Vitebsky also mentions that, despite really astonishing similarities, in that location is no unity in shamanism. The various, fragmented shamanistic practices and beliefs coexist with other behavior everywhere. There is no record of pure shamanistic societies (although their being is non incommunicable).[31] Norwegian social anthropologist Hakan Rydving has likewise argued for the abandonment of the terms "shaman" and "shamanism" as "scientific illusions."[32]

Dulam Bumochir has affirmed the above critiques of "shamanism" equally a Western construct created for comparative purposes and, in an extensive article, has documented the function of Mongols themselves, peculiarly "the partnership of scholars and shamans in the reconstruction of shamanism" in post-1990/mail service-communist Mongolia.[33] This process has likewise been documented past Swiss anthropologist Judith Hangartner in her landmark study of Darhad shamans in Mongolia.[34] Historian Karena Kollmar-Polenz argues that the social construction and reification of shamanism as a religious "other" really began with the 18th-century writings of Tibetan Buddhist monks in Mongolia and later "probably influenced the formation of European discourse on Shamanism".[35]

History [edit]

Shamanism is a system of religious practise.[36] Historically, it is ofttimes associated with ethnic and tribal societies, and involves conventionalities that shamans, with a connection to the otherworld, accept the power to heal the sick, communicate with spirits, and escort souls of the expressionless to the afterlife. The origins of Shamanism stem from Northern Europe and Asia.[37]

Despite structural implications of colonialism and imperialism that have express the ability of indigenous peoples to do traditional spiritualities, many communities are undergoing resurgence through self-determination[38] and the reclamation of dynamic traditions.[39] Other groups take been able to avoid some of these structural impediments by virtue of their isolation, such every bit the nomadic Tuvan (with an estimated population of 3000 people surviving from this tribe).[40] Tuva is ane of the most isolated asiatic tribes in Russian federation where the art of shamanism has been preserved until today due to its isolated existence, allowing it to exist costless from the influences of other major religions.[41]

Behavior [edit]

There are many variations of shamanism throughout the earth, simply several mutual beliefs are shared past all forms of shamanism. Common beliefs identified past Eliade (1972)[26] are the post-obit:

  • Spirits exist and they play important roles both in individual lives and in human society
  • The shaman can communicate with the spirit world
  • Spirits can be benevolent or malevolent
  • The shaman tin treat sickness caused by malevolent spirits
  • The shaman can employ trances inducing techniques to incite visionary ecstasy and go on vision quests
  • The shaman's spirit tin go out the body to enter the supernatural world to search for answers
  • The shaman evokes animal images as spirit guides, omens, and bulletin-bearers
  • The shaman tin perform other varied forms of divination, scry, throw basic or runes, and sometimes foretell of hereafter events

Equally Alice Kehoe[iv] notes, Eliade's conceptualization of shamans produces a universalist epitome of indigenous cultures, which perpetuates notions of the dead (or dying) Indian[42] likewise as the noble savage.[43]

Shamanism is based on the premise that the visible world is pervaded by invisible forces or spirits which affect the lives of the living.[44] Although the causes of disease lie in the spiritual realm, inspired past malicious spirits, both spiritual and physical methods are used to heal. Commonly, a shaman "enters the body" of the patient to confront the spiritual infirmity and heals by banishing the infectious spirit.

Many shamans take practiced knowledge of medicinal plants native to their surface area, and an herbal treatment is often prescribed. In many places shamans learn directly from the plants, harnessing their effects and healing properties, after obtaining permission from the indwelling or patron spirits. In the Peruvian Amazon Basin, shamans and curanderos use medicine songs chosen icaros to evoke spirits. Before a spirit can be summoned it must teach the shaman its song.[44] The use of totemic items such as rocks with special powers and an animating spirit is mutual.

Such practices are presumably very ancient. Plato wrote in his Phaedrus that the "start prophecies were the words of an oak", and that those who lived at that time found information technology rewarding enough to "mind to an oak or a rock, and so long as it was telling the truth".

Belief in witchcraft and sorcery, known every bit brujería in Latin America, exists in many societies. Other societies assert all shamans have the ability to both cure and kill. Those with shamanic knowledge usually enjoy bang-up ability and prestige in the customs, but they may also exist regarded suspiciously or appallingly as potentially harmful to others.[45]

By engaging in their work, a shaman is exposed to significant personal take a chance as shamanic plant materials tin be toxic or fatal if misused. Spells are commonly used in an attempt to protect against these dangers, and the employ of more dangerous plants is often very highly ritualized.

Soul and spirit concepts [edit]

Soul
Soul can generally explain more, seemingly unassociated phenomena in shamanism:[46] [47] [48]
Healing
Healing may be based closely on the soul concepts of the belief arrangement of the people served by the shaman.[49] It may consist of the supposed retrieving the lost soul of the ill person.[fifty]
Scarcity of hunted game
Scarcity of hunted game can be solved past "releasing" the souls of the animals from their hidden abodes. Besides that, many taboos may prescribe the behavior of people towards game, so that the souls of the animals do not experience angry or hurt, or the pleased soul of the already killed casualty tin can tell the other, still living animals, that they tin allow themselves to be caught and killed.[51] [52]
Infertility of women
Infertility of women is thought to be cured by obtaining the soul of the expected child[ citation needed ]
Spirits
Spirits are invisible entities that only shamans can see. They are seen as persons that can presume a human or beast torso.[53] Some animals in their concrete forms are also seen as spirits such as the case of the eagle, serpent, jaguar, and rat.[53] Beliefs related to spirits can explain many different phenomena.[54] For example, the importance of storytelling, or acting as a singer, can be understood better if the whole belief system is examined. A person who can memorize long texts or songs, and play an instrument, may be regarded every bit the beneficiary of contact with the spirits (e.thou. Khanty people).[55]

Practice [edit]

Generally, shamans traverse the axis mundi and enter the "spirit world" by effecting a transition of consciousness, entering into an ecstatic trance, either autohypnotically or through the use of entheogens or ritual performances.[56] [57] The methods employed are various, and are often used together.

Entheogens [edit]

text

An entheogen ("generating the divine within")[60] is a psychoactive substance used in a religious, shamanic, or spiritual context.[61] Entheogens have been used in a ritualized context, in a number of different cultures, possibly for thousands of years. Examples of substances used by some cultures as entheogens include: peyote,[62] psilocybin and Amanita muscaria (fly agaric) mushrooms,[63] uncured tobacco,[64] cannabis,[65] ayahuasca,[66] Salvia divinorum,[67] and iboga.[68]

Entheogens also have a substantial history of commodification, peculiarly in the realm of spiritual tourism. For example, countries such as Brazil and Republic of peru have faced an influx of tourists since the psychedelic era starting time in the late 1960s, initiating what has been termed "ayahuasca tourism."[69]

Music and songs [edit]

Just similar shamanism itself,[10] music and songs related to information technology in various cultures are various. In several instances, songs related to shamanism are intended to imitate natural sounds, via onomatopoeia.[70]

Sound mimesis in various cultures may serve other functions not necessarily related to shamanism: practical goals such every bit luring game in the hunt;[71] or entertainment (Inuit throat singing).[71] [72]

Initiation and learning [edit]

Shamans often claim to have been chosen through dreams or signs. Nevertheless, some say their powers are inherited. In traditional societies shamanic training varies in length, but more often than not takes years.

Turner and colleagues[73] mention a phenomenon called "shamanistic initiatory crunch", a rite of passage for shamanshoped-for, commonly involving physical illness or psychological crisis. The meaning role of initiatory illnesses in the calling of a shaman can exist constitute in the example history of Chuonnasuan, who was one of the last shamans amongst the Tungus peoples in Northeast Mainland china.[74]

The wounded healer is an archetype for a shamanic trial and journey. This process is important to immature shamans. They undergo a type of sickness that pushes them to the brink of death. This is said to happen for two reasons:

  • The shaman crosses over to the underworld. This happens then the shaman can venture to its depths to bring back vital information for the sick and the tribe.
  • The shaman must become sick to understand sickness. When the shaman overcomes their ain sickness, they believe that they will hold the cure to heal all that suffer.[75]

Other practices [edit]

  • Ecstatic dancing
  • Icaros / medicine songs[44]
  • Vigils
  • Fasting
  • Mariri
  • Ayahuasca ceremonies

Items used in spiritual practice [edit]

Shamans may utilise varying materials in spiritual practice in dissimilar cultures.

  • Drums – The drum is used by shamans of several peoples in Siberia.[76] [77] The beating of the pulsate allows the shaman to reach an contradistinct state of consciousness or to travel on a journey between the physical and spiritual worlds. Much fascination surrounds the role that the acoustics of the drum play to the shaman. Shaman drums are more often than not synthetic of an brute-skin stretched over a bent wooden hoop, with a handle across the hoop.

Roles [edit]

Shamans have been conceptualized as those who are able to gain knowledge and power to heal in the spiritual globe or dimension. Well-nigh shamans have dreams or visions that convey certain messages. Shamans may claim to take or have caused many spirit guides, who they believe guide and direct them in their travels in the spirit world. These spirit guides are ever thought to exist present inside the shaman, although others are said to run into them merely when the shaman is in a trance. The spirit guide energizes the shamans, enabling them to enter the spiritual dimension. Shamans merits to heal inside the communities and the spiritual dimension by returning lost parts of the man soul from wherever they have gone. Shamans too claim to cleanse excess negative energies, which are said to confuse or pollute the soul. Shamans human action every bit mediators in their cultures.[79] [80] Shamans claim to communicate with the spirits on behalf of the community, including the spirits of the deceased. Shamans believe they can communicate with both living and dead to alleviate unrest, unsettled issues, and to deliver gifts to the spirits.

Among the Selkups, the bounding main duck is a spirit animal. Ducks fly in the air and dive in the h2o and are thus believed to belong to both the upper earth and the world beneath.[81] Among other Siberian peoples, these characteristics are attributed to waterfowl in general.[82] The upper world is the afterlife primarily associated with deceased humans and is believed to be accessed past soul journey through a portal in the heaven. The lower earth or "world below" is the afterlife primarily associated with animals and is believed to be accessed by soul journeying through a portal in the earth.[83] In shamanic cultures, many animals are regarded equally spirit animals.

Shamans perform a variety of functions depending upon their respective cultures;[84] healing,[49] [85] leading a cede,[86] preserving traditions by storytelling and songs,[87] fortune-telling,[88] and acting as a psychopomp ("guide of souls").[89] A unmarried shaman may fulfill several of these functions.[84]

The functions of a shaman may include either guiding to their proper abode the souls of the dead (which may be guided either ane-at-a-time or in a grouping, depending on the civilisation), and the curing of ailments. The ailments may be either purely physical afflictions—such as disease, which are claimed to be cured by gifting, flattering, threatening, or wrestling the disease-spirit (sometimes trying all these, sequentially), and which may exist completed by displaying a supposedly extracted token of the illness-spirit (displaying this, even if "fraudulent", is supposed to print the disease-spirit that it has been, or is in the process of being, defeated so that it will retreat and stay out of the patient's body), or else mental (including psychosomatic) afflictions—such equally persistent terror, which is as well believed to be cured by similar methods. In most languages a different term other than the one translated "shaman" is usually applied to a religious official leading sacrificial rites ("priest"), or to a raconteur ("sage") of traditional lore; there may exist more of an overlap in functions (with that of a shaman), still, in the case of an interpreter of omens or of dreams.

In that location are distinct types of shamans who perform more specialized functions. For example, among the Nani people, a distinct kind of shaman acts as a psychopomp.[90] Other specialized shamans may exist distinguished according to the blazon of spirits, or realms of the spirit world, with which the shaman about normally interacts. These roles vary among the Nenets, Enets, and Selkup shamans.[91] [92]

The assistant of an Oroqen shaman (called jardalanin, or "second spirit") knows many things about the associated behavior. He or she accompanies the rituals and interprets the behaviors of the shaman.[93] Despite these functions, the jardalanin is non a shaman. For this interpretative banana, it would exist unwelcome to autumn into a trance.[94]

Ecological aspect [edit]

Among the Tucano people, a sophisticated system exists for ecology resources management and for avoiding resource depletion through overhunting. This system is conceptualized mythologically and symbolically by the belief that breaking hunting restrictions may cause illness. As the primary teacher of tribal symbolism, the shaman may take a leading role in this ecological management, actively restricting hunting and fishing. The shaman is able to "release" game animals, or their souls, from their hidden abodes.[95] [96] The Piaroa people accept ecological concerns related to shamanism.[97] Among the Inuit, shamans fetch the souls of game from remote places,[98] [99] or soul travel to ask for game from mythological beings like the Sea Woman.[100]

Economics [edit]

The way shamans get sustenance and take part in everyday life varies beyond cultures. In many Inuit groups, they provide services for the community and get a "due payment",[ who? ] and believe the payment is given to the helping spirits.[101] An account states that the gifts and payments that a shaman receives are given by his partner spirit. Since it obliges the shaman to employ his souvenir and to work regularly in this capacity, the spirit rewards him with the goods that it receives.[102] These goods, notwithstanding, are only "welcome addenda". They are not plenty to enable a full-time shaman. Shamans live like whatever other member of the group, as a hunter or housewife. Due to the popularity of ayahuasca tourism in South America, there are practitioners in areas frequented by backpackers who brand a living from leading ceremonies.[103] [101]

Bookish study [edit]

Cognitive and evolutionary approaches [edit]

In that location are two major frameworks among cognitive and evolutionary scientists for explaining shamanism. The first, proposed by anthropologist Michael Winkelman, is known as the "neurotheological theory".[104] [105] Co-ordinate to Winkelman, shamanism develops reliably in human societies because it provides valuable benefits to the practitioner, their group, and individual clients. In item, the trance states induced by dancing, hallucinogens, and other triggers are hypothesized to have an "integrative" effect on cognition, allowing communication amid mental systems that specialize in theory of mind, social intelligence, and natural history.[106] With this cognitive integration, the shaman can ameliorate predict the movement of animals, resolve group conflicts, plan migrations, and provide other useful services.

The neurotheological theory contrasts with the "by-product" or "subjective" model of shamanism developed by Harvard anthropologist Manvir Singh.[ane] [107] [108] According to Singh, shamanism is a cultural technology that adapts to (or hacks) our psychological biases to convince us that a specialist tin influence of import but uncontrollable outcomes.[109] Citing piece of work on the psychology of magic and superstition, Singh argues that humans search for ways of influencing uncertain events, such as healing illness, decision-making rain, or alluring animals. Every bit specialists compete to assistance their clients control these outcomes, they bulldoze the development of psychologically compelling magic, producing traditions adapted to people's cognitive biases. Shamanism, Singh argues, is the culmination of this cultural evolutionary process—a psychologically appealing method for controlling incertitude. For example, some shamanic practices exploit our intuitions about humanness: Practitioners use trance and dramatic initiations to seemingly become entities distinct from normal humans and thus more than plain capable of interacting with the invisible forces believed to oversee important outcomes. Influential cerebral and anthropological scientists such every bit Pascal Boyer and Nicholas Humphrey accept endorsed Singh'due south arroyo,[110] [111] although other researchers have criticized Singh'southward dismissal of private- and group-level benefits.[112]

David Lewis-Williams explains the origins of shamanic practice, and some of its precise forms, through aspects of human consciousness evinced in cave art and LSD experiments alike.[113]

Ecological approaches and systems theory [edit]

Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff relates these concepts to developments in the means that modern science (systems theory, ecology, new approaches in anthropology and archeology) treats causality in a less linear fashion.[95] He too suggests a cooperation of modern science and ethnic lore.[114]

Historical origins [edit]

Shamanic practices may originate as early as the Paleolithic, predating all organized religions,[115] [116] and certainly every bit early as the Neolithic catamenia.[116] The primeval known undisputed burying of a shaman (and by extension the earliest undisputed bear witness of shamans and shamanic practices) dates back to the early on Upper Paleolithic era (c. xxx,000 BP) in what is now the Czech republic.[117]

Sanskrit scholar and comparative mythologist Michael Witzel proposes that all of the earth'south mythologies, and also the concepts and practices of shamans, tin can be traced to the migrations of two prehistoric populations: the "Gondwana" type (of circa 65,000 years agone) and the "Laurasian" type (of circa twoscore,000 years ago).[118]

In November 2008, researchers from the Hebrew Academy of Jerusalem announced the discovery of a 12,000-yr-old site in Israel that is perceived as 1 of the earliest-known shaman burials. The elderly adult female had been arranged on her side, with her legs apart and folded inward at the knee joint. X large stones were placed on the caput, pelvis, and arms. Among her unusual grave goods were 50 consummate tortoise shells, a human foot, and certain torso parts from animals such equally a cow tail and eagle wings. Other animal remains came from a boar, leopard, and two martens. "It seems that the woman … was perceived equally existence in a shut relationship with these animal spirits", researchers noted. The grave was one of at least 28 graves at the site, located in a cave in lower Galilee and belonging to the Natufian culture, but is said to be unlike any other amidst the Epipaleolithic Natufians or in the Paleolithic period.[119]

Semiotic and hermeneutic approaches [edit]

A debated etymology of the word "shaman" is "one who knows",[11] [120] implying, amidst other things, that the shaman is an adept in keeping together the multiple codes of the society, and that to be effective, shamans must maintain a comprehensive view in their mind which gives them certainty of cognition.[10] According to this view, the shaman uses (and the audience understands) multiple codes, expressing meanings in many ways: verbally, musically, artistically, and in dance. Meanings may be manifested in objects such every bit amulets.[120] If the shaman knows the culture of their community well,[fourscore] [121] [122] and acts accordingly, their audience will know the used symbols and meanings and therefore trust the shamanic worker.[122] [123]

There are also semiotic, theoretical approaches to shamanism,[124] [125] [126] and examples of "mutually opposing symbols" in academic studies of Siberian lore, distinguishing a "white" shaman who contacts sky spirits for good aims by day, from a "black" shaman who contacts evil spirits for bad aims by night.[127] (Serial of such opposing symbols referred to a earth-view behind them. Analogously to the way grammar arranges words to express meanings and convey a world, likewise this formed a cognitive map).[10] [128] Shaman'southward lore is rooted in the folklore of the community, which provides a "mythological mental map".[129] [130] Juha Pentikäinen uses the concept "grammar of listen".[130] [131]

Armin Geertz coined and introduced the hermeneutics,[132] or "ethnohermeneutics",[128] estimation. Hoppál extended the term to include non only the interpretation of oral and written texts, but that of "visual texts besides (including motions, gestures and more complex rituals, and ceremonies performed, for example, by shamans)".[133] Revealing the animistic views in shamanism, simply as well their relevance to the contemporary world, where ecological problems take validated paradigms of balance and protection.[130]

Decline and revitalization and tradition-preserving movements [edit]

Traditional, Indigenous shamanism is believed to exist declining around the earth. Whalers who frequently interact with Inuit tribes are i source of this turn down in that region.[134]

A shaman medico of Kyzyl, 2005. Attempts are being made to preserve and revitalize Tuvan shamanism:[135] former authentic shamans take begun to practice again, and young apprentices are being educated in an organized way.[136]

In many areas, one-time shamans ceased to fulfill the functions in the customs they used to, as they felt mocked by their own customs,[137] or regarded their own past as deprecated and were unwilling to talk about information technology to ethnographers.[138]

Besides personal communications of former shamans, sociology texts may narrate directly about a deterioration procedure. For example, a Buryat ballsy text details the wonderful deeds of the ancient "start shaman" Kara-Gürgän:[139] he could fifty-fifty compete with God, create life, steal back the soul of the sick from God without his consent. A subsequent text laments that shamans of older times were stronger, possessing capabilities like omnividence,[140] fortune-telling fifty-fifty for decades in the time to come, moving as fast as a bullet.[141]

In virtually afflicted areas, shamanic practices ceased to exist, with authentic shamans dying and their personal experiences dying with them. The loss of memories is non always lessened by the fact the shaman is not always the just person in a community who knows the beliefs and motives related to the local shaman-hood.[93] [94] Although the shaman is often believed and trusted precisely because they "accommodate" to the behavior of the community,[122] several parts of the cognition related to the local shamanhood consist of personal experiences of the shaman, or root in their family life,[142] thus, those are lost with their death. Besides that, in many cultures, the entire traditional belief arrangement has become endangered (frequently together with a fractional or total language shift), with the other people of the community remembering the associated behavior and practices (or the language at all) grew old or died, many folklore memories songs, and texts were forgotten—which may threaten fifty-fifty such peoples who could preserve their isolation until the middle of the 20th century, similar the Nganasan.[143]

Some areas could savour a prolonged resistance due to their remoteness.

  • Variants of shamanism among Inuit peoples were once a widespread (and very diverse) phenomenon, but today is rarely proficient, equally well as already having been in decline among many groups, fifty-fifty while the first major ethnological research was being washed,[144] due east.thousand. among Polar Inuit, at the finish of the 19th century, Sagloq, the last shaman who was believed to be able to travel to the sky and nether the sea died—and many other former shamanic capacities were lost during that time also, like ventriloquism and sleight of hand.[145]
  • The isolated location of Nganasan people allowed shamanism to be a living miracle among them even at the beginning of the 20th century,[146] the last notable Nganasan shaman's ceremonies were recorded on motion-picture show in the 1970s.[147]

Later on exemplifying the general pass up even in the most remote areas, at that place are revitalizations or tradition-preserving efforts equally a response. Besides collecting the memories,[148] at that place are likewise tradition-preserving[149] and fifty-fifty revitalization efforts,[150] led by authentic sometime shamans (for case amid the Sakha people[151] and Tuvans).[136]

Native Americans in the United States do not call their traditional spiritual ways "shamanism". However, according to Richard L. Allen, inquiry and policy analyst for the Cherokee Nation, they are regularly overwhelmed with inquiries by and nearly fraudulent shamans, aka ("plastic medicine people").[152] He adds, "Ane may presume that anyone claiming to be a Cherokee 'shaman, spiritual healer, or pipe-carrier', is equivalent to a modernistic day medicine show and snake-oil vendor."[153]

There are also neoshamanistic movements, which usually differ from traditional shamanistic do and behavior in significant means, and oftentimes accept more connection to the New Age communities than traditional cultures.[154]

Regional variations [edit]

See also [edit]

  • Divine madness
  • Dukun
  • Fashi
  • Folk healer
  • Folk magic
  • Itako
  • Neuroanthropology
  • Neurotheology
  • Pawang
  • Plastic shaman
  • Prehistoric medicine
  • Reincarnation (Ho-Chunk)
  • Seiðr
  • Shaman King
  • Soul catcher
  • Spirit spouse
  • Tangki
  • Tlamatini
  • Zduhać

References [edit]

Citations [edit]

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  2. ^ Mircea Eliade; Vilmos Diószegi (May 12, 2020). "Shamanism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved May xx, 2020. Shamanism, religious phenomenon centred on the shaman, a person believed to achieve various powers through trance or ecstatic religious experience. Although shamans' repertoires vary from one culture to the next, they are typically thought to have the ability to heal the sick, to communicate with the otherworld, and often to escort the souls of the dead to that otherworld.
  3. ^ Gredig, Florian (2009). Finding New Cosmologies. Berlin: Lit Verlag Dr. Due west. Hopf.
  4. ^ a b c d Kehoe, Alice Beck (2000). Shamans and religion : an anthropological exploration in critical thinking. Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Printing. ISBN978-1-57766-162-7.
  5. ^ Wernitznig, Dagmar, Europe's Indians, Indians in Europe: European Perceptions and Appropriations of Native American Cultures from Pocahontas to the Present. University Press of America, 2007: p.132. "What happens further in the Plastic Shaman's [fictitious] story is highly irritating from a perspective of cultural hegemony. The Injun elder does not only willingly share their spirituality with the white intruder but, in fact, must come to the conclusion that this intruder is as proficient an Indian every bit they are themselves. Regarding Indian spirituality, the Plastic Shaman even out-Indians the bodily ones. The messianic element, which Plastic Shamanism financially draws on, is installed in the Yoda-similar elderberry themselves. They are the ones - while melodramatically departing from their spiritual adjunct - who urge the Plastic Shaman to share their gift with the rest of the world. Thus Plastic Shamans wipe their hands clean of any megalomaniac or missionizing undertones. Licensed by the authorisation of an Indian elder, they now have every right to spread their wisdom, and if they brand (quite more than than) a buck with it, then so be it.--The neocolonial ideology attached to this scenario leaves less room for cynicism."}}
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  • Hoppál, Mihály (2005). Sámánok Eurázsiában (in Hungarian). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. ISBN978-963-05-8295-7. The title means "Shamans in Eurasia", the volume is published also in German, Estonian and Finnish. Site of publisher with brusque description on the book (in Hungarian).
  • Hoppál, Mihály (2006a). "Sámánok, kultúrák és kutatók az ezredfordulón". In Hoppál, Mihály; Szathmári, Botond; Takács, András (eds.). Sámánok és kultúrák. Budapest: Gondolat. pp. 9–25. ISBN978-963-9450-28-8. The chapter title ways "Shamans, cultures and researchers in the millenary", the book title means "Shamans and cultures".
  • Hoppál, Mihály (2007b). "Is Shamanism a Folk Religion?". Shamans and Traditions (Vol. 13). Bibliotheca Shamanistica. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. pp. xi–16. ISBN978-963-05-8521-7.
  • Hoppál, Mihály (2007c). "Eco-Animism of Siberian Shamanhood". Shamans and Traditions (Vol thirteen). Bibliotheca Shamanistica. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. pp. 17–26. ISBN978-963-05-8521-7.
  • Janhunen, Juha. Siberian shamanistic terminology. Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne, 1986, 194: 97–117.
  • Hugh-Jones, Christine (1980). From the Milk River: Spatial and Temporal Processes in Northwest Amazonia . Cambridge Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology. Cambridge University Printing. ISBN978-0-521-22544-1.
  • Hugh-Jones, Stephen (1980). The Palm and the Pleiades. Initiation and Cosmology in Northwest Amazonia . Cambridge Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-21952-v.
  • Kleivan, Inge; B. Sonne (1985). Eskimos: Greenland and Canada. Iconography of religions, section VIII, "Arctic Peoples", fascicle 2. Leiden, The netherlands: Constitute of Religious Iconography • State University Groningen. E.J. Brill. ISBN978-90-04-07160-5.
  • Menovščikov, G.A. (= Г. А. Меновщиков) (1968). "Pop Conceptions, Religious Beliefs and Rites of the Asiatic Eskimoes". In Diószegi, Vilmos (ed.). Popular beliefs and folklore tradition in Siberia. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó.
  • Nagy, Beáta Boglárka (1998). "Az északi szamojédok". In Csepregi, Márta (ed.). Finnugor kalauz. Panoráma (in Hungarian). Budapest: Medicina Könyvkiadó. pp. 221–34. ISBN978-963-243-813-9. The chapter means "Northern Samoyedic peoples", the title means Finno-Ugric guide.
  • Nattiez, Jean Jacques. Inuit Games and Songs / Chants et Jeux des Inuit. Musiques & musiciens du monde / Musics & musicians of the world. Montreal: Research Group in Musical Semiotics, Kinesthesia of Music, University of Montreal. . The songs are available online, on the ethnopoetics website curated by Jerome Rothenberg.
  • Noll, Richard; Shi, Kun (2004). "Chuonnasuan (Meng Jin Fu), The Last Shaman of the Oroqen of Northeast Mainland china" (PDF). 韓國宗敎硏究 (Journal of Korean Religions). Vol. 6. Seoul KR: 西江大學校. 宗教硏究所 (Sŏgang Taehakkyo. Chonggyo Yŏnʾguso.). pp. 135–62. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-03-26. Retrieved 2020-05-28 . . It describes the life of Chuonnasuan, the concluding shaman of the Oroqen of Northeast China.
  • Reinhard, Johan (1976) "Shamanism and Spirit Possession: The Definition Problem." In Spirit Possession in the Nepal Himalayas, J. Hitchcock & R. Jones (eds.), New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, pp. 12–xx.
  • Shimamura, Ippei The roots Seekers: Shamanism and Ethnicity Among the Mongol Buryats. Yokohama, Japan: Shumpusha, 2014.
  • Singh, Manvir (2018). "The cultural evolution of shamanism". Behavioral & Encephalon Sciences. 41: e66, 1–61. doi:ten.1017/S0140525X17001893. PMID 28679454. S2CID 206264885. Summary of the cultural evolutionary and cognitive foundations of shamanism; published with commentaries by 25 scholars (including anthropologists, philosophers, and psychologists).
  • Turner, Robert P.; Lukoff, David; Barnhouse, Ruth Tiffany & Lu, Francis G. (1995) Religious or Spiritual Trouble. A Culturally Sensitive Diagnostic Category in the DSM-IV. Periodical of Nervous and Mental Disease, Vol.183, No. seven, pp. 435–44
  • Voigt, Miklós (2000). "Sámán – a szó és értelme". Világnak kezdetétől fogva. Történeti folklorisztikai tanulmányok (in Hungarian). Budapest: Universitas Könyvkiadó. pp. 41–45. ISBN978-963-9104-39-six. The chapter discusses the etymology and significant of word "shaman".
  • Winkelman, Michael (2000). Shamanism: The neural ecology of consciousness and healing. Westport, CT: Bergen & Gavey. ISBN978-963-9104-39-6. Major piece of work on the evolutionary and psychological origins of shamanism.
  • Witzel, Michael (2011). "Shamanism in Northern and Southern Eurasia: their distinctive methods and change of consciousness" (PDF). Social Science Information. fifty (one): 39–61. doi:ten.1177/0539018410391044. S2CID 144745844.

Further reading [edit]

  • Joseph Campbell, The Masks of God: Archaic Mythology. 1959; reprint, New York and London: Penguin Books, 1976. ISBN 978-0-fourteen-019443-two
  • Harner, Michael, The Way of the Shaman: A Guide to Ability and Healing, Harper & Row Publishers, NY 1980
  • Richard de Mille, ed. The Don Juan Papers: Farther Castaneda Controversies. Santa Barbara, California: Ross-Erikson, 1980.
  • George Devereux, "Shamans as Neurotics", American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 63, No. v, Office 1. (Oct. 1961), pp. 1088–90.
  • Jay Courtney Fikes, Carlos Castaneda: Academic Opportunism and the Psychedelic Sixties, Millennia Press, Canada, 1993 ISBN 978-0-9696960-0-1
  • Åke Hultkrantz (Honorary Editor in Chief): Shaman. Journal of the International Society for Shamanistic Enquiry
  • Philip Jenkins, Dream Catchers: How Mainstream America Discovered Native Spirituality. New York: Oxford University Printing, 2004. ISBN 978-0-19-516115-1
  • Alice Kehoe, Shamans and Religion: An Anthropological Exploration in Critical Thinking. 2000. London: Waveland Press. ISBN 978-ane-57766-162-7
  • David Charles Manners, In the Shadow of Crows. (contains starting time-hand accounts of the Nepalese jhankri tradition) Oxford: Signal Books, 2011. ISBN 978-ane-904955-92-4.
  • Hashemite kingdom of jordan D. Newspaper, The Spirits are Drunk: Comparative Approaches to Chinese Organized religion, Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1995. ISBN 978-0-7914-2315-8.
  • Smith, Frederick 1000. (2006). The Self Possessed: Deity and Spirit Possession in S Asian Literature. Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0-231-13748-5. pp. 195–202.
  • Barbara Tedlock, Fourth dimension and the Highland Maya, U. of New Mexico Press, 1992. ISBN 978-0-8263-1358-4
  • Silvia Tomášková, Wayward Shamans: the prehistory of an idea, Academy of California Press, 2013. ISBN 978-0-520-27532-iv
  • Michel Weber, « Shamanism and proto-consciousness », in René Lebrun, Julien De Vos et É. Van Quickelberghe (éds), Deus Unicus. Actes du colloque « Aux origines du monothéisme et du scepticisme religieux » organisé à Louvain-la-Neuve les 7 et eight juin 2013 par le Eye d'histoire des Religions Cardinal Julien Ries [Cardinalis Julien Ries et Pierre Bordreuil in memoriam], Turnhout, Brepols, coll. Human Religiosus série 2, xiv, 2015, pp. 247–60.
  • Andrei Znamenski, Shamanism in Siberia: Russian Records of Siberian Spirituality. Dordrech and Boston: Kluwer/Springer, 2003. ISBN 978-1-4020-1740-vii
  • Andrei Znamenski,The Beauty of the Archaic: Shamanism and Western Imagination. New York: Oxford University Printing, 2007. ISBN 978-0-1951-7231-7

External links [edit]

  • AFECT A charitable organization protecting traditional cultures in northern Thailand
  • Chuonnasuan (Meng Jin Fu), The Final Shaman of the Oroqen of Northeast Mainland china, by Richard Noll and Kun Shi (Internet Annal copy from
  • New Age Frauds and Plastic Shamans, an organization devoted to alerting seekers near fraudulent teachers, and helping them avoid being exploited or participating in exploitation
  • Shamanic Healing Rituals by Tatyana Sem, Russian Museum of Ethnography
  • Shamanism and the Image of the Teutonic Deity, Óðinn past A. Asbjorn Jon
  • Shamanism in Siberia – photographs past Standa Krupar
  • Studies in Siberian Shamanism and Religions of the Finno-Ugrian Peoples by Aado Lintrop, Folk Belief and Media Grouping of the Estonian Literary Museum
  • A View from the Headwaters past Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff Amazonian indigenous oeoples and ecology
  • Samgaldai NGO – A charitable, non-for-turn a profit NGO for preserving Mongolian traditional Shamanic practices and rituals, operating in Mongolia.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamanism

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